When building a research plan, sometimes the first step is simply describing what’s happening. That’s where descriptive research comes in. It’s a foundational approach used across industries to observe and document the characteristics or behaviours of a group, without influencing them.
For example, a brand manager might want to understand how often consumers engage with a new feature, or their perceptions on a new product launch. Descriptive research helps answer these kinds of questions by collecting structured data that paints a clear picture of what’s going on. Essentially, it’s the “what,”, “where,” “when,” and “how” without digging into the why just yet.
In this article, we’ll break down what descriptive research is, when to use it, and how it supports broader research goals. We’ll also walk through practical applications, helping you spot where this method can set the stage for deeper analysis.
What is descriptive research?
Descriptive research is often the first part of a more in-depth research process. It is a non-experimental form of research with a primary goal of describing characteristics of a population or phenomena, without the introduction of variables by researchers.
Descriptive research is designed to answer the questions of “what”, “where,” “when,” and “how” by providing an observatory description of the facts and accurately noting characteristics, behaviours, and trends within a specific population or surrounding a specific phenomenon. Similarly to detective work, it simply looks at the facts as they are laid out, without influencing any variables or manipulating results.
When describing descriptive research, it’s important to note that it is observational in nature. Researchers observe and measure variables without manipulating them, aiming to identify patterns or possible correlations. In contrast, experimental research involves controlling variables to test for causality, which is not the goal of descriptive research.
Descriptive research can serve both preliminary and conclusive purposes. It’s often used to explore details, background, and characteristics of a phenomenon in order to better understand the issue at hand and is frequently a first step before more in-depth research.
Descriptive research design
A well-designed descriptive research project will effectively create the right framework for the further gathering and analysing of data. There are two types of descriptive research, those being longitudinal and cross-sectional:
- Longitudinal research is essentially measuring the impact of something over time. Often this means taking a snapshot of what the market looks like at one period over the course of several years.
- Cross-sectional research involves collecting data at one specific point in time.
It’s important to note that cross-sectional research is the more common and form of descriptive research. It tends to be quicker, allowing researchers to analyse variables and relationships without the added complexity and cost of tracking changes over a longer period.
Additionally, descriptive research design primarily relies on quantitative methods, though it can also incorporate qualitative data. Its goal is to gather information that helps researchers make informed decisions.
Quantitative data collection involves gathering numerical data that can be quantifiable or analysed statistically. It can include a variety of methods, like observations, surveys, questionnaires, and more. Qualitative data, by contrast, is more fluid and contextual in nature, not relying as much on numbers or statistical data. It can include methods like focus groups, in-depth interviews, open-ended survey questions, and more. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are important, but they serve different purposes in helping researchers understand the full picture.
Characteristics of descriptive research
There are several ways in which you can collect data with descriptive research, but the approach tends to share a few common characteristics. Below are some to keep in mind:
- It’s conducted in a natural, non-invasive setting: Descriptive research aims to collect data that does not influence answers or outcomes; therefore, it typically takes place in real-world environments. This helps ensure more authentic responses. A good example of this type of collection method would include observational studies and surveys.
- It’s well-suited for cross-sectional studies: This is a type of collection method that involves studying data from a variety of individuals all at a single point in time. This approach helps capture insights across different demographics, making it especially useful for understanding the behaviours and preference of a broader population.
- It serves as a foundation: Much of the data collected through descriptive research can then be used to build a foundation for further research. It is an important first step for many more in-depth studies that help reshape various fields, especially the medical, science and business arenas.
- Uncontrolled variables: With descriptive research, variables are not influenced by the researcher. The aim is to not interfere with or manipulate the research subject in any way.
Descriptive research is immensely important when building hypotheses or even supporting additional studies. It is an invaluable first step that can guide researchers into creating more valuable questions and honing in on the right data points.
Descriptive research methods
Because descriptive research can draw on both quantitative and qualitative approaches, researchers are given several data collection methods to choose from:
- Surveys: Market research surveys are one of the most common and cost-effective tools in market research. Data is typically collected via questionnaires, polls, or interviews, which can be either online research surveys, in person, or on the phone. The flexible nature of surveys offers a great deal of freedom, making them a popular option for descriptive research.
- Observational studies: Direct observation is immensely important within the broad scope of descriptive research. It is key to capturing real-world data without research subjects being influenced. Observational studies are often utilised in science and medical research to observe or discover an independent variable that is not being controlled by the research team.
- Case studies: Case studies are in-depth examinations that offer a closer look at a group or even specific individuals within a group. For example, a case study in business may only a review a particular company’s strategy. Rather than generate results, case studies are often used to establish a hypothesis or influence the scope of further study. Instead of looking at just one factor as other research might, case studies will often consider nearly every aspect of a subject's life and history to discover patterns. Researchers can implement case studies when replicating outcomes is either difficult or impossible.
Examples of Descriptive Research Studies in Market Research
Descriptive research is often used across industries to better understand the behaviours, attitudes, and opinions of a population.
Businesses can leverage descriptive research to gather information on consumer preferences and purchasing habits. For example, a beverage company might use a survey to measure what flavours or packaging consumers prefer. The data collected could include demographic information, buying frequency, and preferences.
Healthcare, social sciences, or government agencies regularly gather demographic information about a population which helps inform public policy, determine resource allocation, and understand changes over time. Descriptive research can additionally be used as a way to identify areas that require further research. Disease treatment, cures, symptoms of conditions, medication information, and more can all be studied as part of the descriptive research process.
When to use descriptive research
As outlined above, descriptive research serves as a valuable foundational step for more in-depth research. While it is not suited to answering ever type of research question, it’s ideal for identifying trends or exploring the characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables.
Descriptive research is especially useful in the early phases of research or when little existing data is available. In many cases, it provides the groundwork needed before advancing to more complex methods like experimental or causal research.
Benefits and limitations of descriptive research
The following is a breakdown of the benefits and limitations of descriptive research. As mentioned previously, descriptive research is a very specific type of research and is not suited to every type of research:
Benefits
Descriptive research provides many noteworthy benefits. It’s a cost-effective option, as it typically relies on broad elements and takes place in a respondent’s natural environment, reducing the need for extensive setup. One of its key advantages is flexibility, as it allows for the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data, giving researchers the ability to identify patterns in behaviour while also capturing richer content and detail. Furthermore, it is immensely helpful when little to no data exists covering a topic.
Limitations
While descriptive research offers valuable insights, it does come with limitations. Unfortunately, descriptive research cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships, tends to be limited in its overall depth, and can include some potential bias within the data collection process. For example, poorly formulated survey questions can compromise the reliability of the data collected and undermine the accuracy of a study.
Again, descriptive research is best used as a building block for future and more in-depth research methods. To understand causality or deeper motivations, further experimental or causal methods are typically required.
Descriptive research in action: Real-world applications
Descriptive research plays a crucial role in real-world decision-making. It helps businesses identify consumer preferences, understand behaviour patterns, and spot areas for improvement.
For example, a manufacturer might use descriptive research to uncover recurring defects in production, enabling them to trace the issue and implement corrective measures. Similarly, a financial institution may study customer preferences to tailor its services more effectively. These real-world applications—and many examples from our own work at Kantar—show just how valuable descriptive research can be in delivering data that drive better business decisions. B
y providing structured, unbiased observations, descriptive research lays the groundwork for deeper exploration and more targeted studies. Whether you're identifying trends, understanding your audience, or preparing for more complex methodologies, descriptive research offers the clarity and direction needed to move forward with confidence.
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